“What makes you beautiful?”

“What makes you beautiful?”http://www.wavemag.com.np/issue/article3955.html

FROM ISSUE # 195 (March 2012) | IN THIS ISSUE
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As women we are constantly bombarded from all sides about the way we ought to look... and I am not just talking about the blue eyed, blonde hair tall, waifish girl fashion magazines say we ought to all aspire to be. Nepal, for a country with this many ethnicities and tribes, is shockingly rigid about what we should look like. And common rules of courtesy don't apply in this country... for anyone, your neighbour's interfering mother-in-law's second cousin, or the chiya pasal wallah, family, friends, teachers, the micro bus conductor... all and sundry are at complete freedom to yell out at the top of their voices what they do not like about your appearance, your size, your structure, your hairstyle, you.

Many of us, not wanting to face this barrage of criticism everywhere we go, dress to merge with the crowds or try to best disguise our 'imperfections'. And then you notice these women, regular everyday women, who walk tall, with poise and seemingly unconcerned by the judgemental voices around them and you tell yourself, "Wow, look at her!".

This month WAVE speaks to seven such women and asks them,

Name: Ruby Gurung Age: 20 Occupation: Student

Are you happy with the way you look?Yes.

What two things do you love about your body?My eyes and hair.

If you could change parts of the way you look, what would it be?My height

What do you love about yourself?Everything! :)

How often do you think women's magazines really speak to you?Rarely.

What have your moments of low self-esteem taught you?It has taught me to become more confident of myself and my life

Nepali society expects women to look a certain way; thin, straight hair, light-skinned etc. What do you have to say about it? We are beautiful the way we are and no one has the right to judge us.

Name: Shikha Sunuwar Age: 17 Occupation: Student

Are you happy with the way you look?Very.

What two things do you love about your body?My hair, i guess? (If it can be counted as a part of my body ) and the colour of my eyes ! (They're black!!  )

If you could change parts of the way you look, what would it be?It would be nice to be slimmer.

What do you love about yourself?The way my mind is open! Seriously, i wouldn't care how you looked or talked like. If we can chat on a similar topic with a smile on our faces, you could be my new best friend!

How often do you think women's magazines really speak to you?I'm not that much into reading magazines, especially "women's magazines" at that

What have your moments of low self-esteem taught you?Be whoever you really are inside and do whatever you want to. Only then will you be doing your best.

Nepali society expects women to look a certain way; thin, straight hair, light-skinned etc. What do you have to say about it? To be honest, i don't really give a rat's ass about what anyone thinks. If i did, i wouldn't be and love the Shikha that I am today.

Name: Esha Manandhar Age : 25 Occupation: Student. Kathmandu University/Department of Music

Are you happy with the way you look?Yes, this is how and who I've been my entire life, and this is who I shall be.

What are the two things you love about your body?First, definitely my hair. I love my curls, thanks to my parents genes, and secondly, the fact that I have curves. I am what I eat. I strongly believe, that real men go for curves rather than bones.

What do you love about yourself?This is a tough one to answer, but I love myself for being who I am, this person who has zero tolerance for nonsense, who is very vocal about her thoughts and who speaks her mind.

How often do you think women's magazines really speak to you?Honestly; hardly ever. I will flip through the pages but I dont follow trends, I dont follow what's written. in one issue they say something is good for you, and in the next the same is bad.

What have your moments of low self-esteem taught you?People will always try to bring you down, but from all this and people will always TALK, even if your're good or bad at what you're doing, people will ALWAYS talk. As long as you're doing what you feel is right, the people who pretend to be nice to your face but talk behind your back do not matter.

Nepali society expects women to look a certain way, thin, straight hair, light skinned etc. What do you have to say about it?It's not just Nepali society. Size zero is what everyone is after, but I'm comfortable being who I am. I have curls, I am not thin, I dont use make up and though I am fair skinned, I have freckles, and I am absolutely fine with them. As the old saying goes, this is who I am: take it or leave.

Name: Shanti Pun Age:22 Occupation: Student

Are you happy with the way you look?Somewhat unhappy

What two things do you love about your body?Hair and legs

If you could change parts of the way you look, what would it be?My face structure

What do you love about yourself?Almost everything

How often do you think women's magazines really speak to you?Sometimes

What have your moments of low self-esteem taught you?One has to be confident and happy about oneself.

Nepali society expects women to look a certain way; thin, straight hair, light-skinned etc. What do you have to say about it? I  do not like the way Nepali society expects women to look a certain way. People are beautiful just the way they are and the Nepali society must change their views.

Name:Trishna Rana Age: 25 Occupation:Desk Editor at Nepali Times

Are you happy with the way you look?It depends. Sometimes I am absolutely comfortable with my body and could not careless about what other people say or think and then there are days where I havea lot of self-doubt. In college, I was very confident because I knew my professors, friends and colleagues would judge me on the basis of my intelligence, my personality and work ethic and not on how much I weighed. But in Nepal, I hearthe "M" (moti) word a lot, from relatives, from random strangers on the streets. I feel like many Nepalis are almost shocked to see a plus-size person like me and ask all sorts of personal questions. All this upsets me from time to time.

What two things do you love about your body?I love my short hair. I think it makes me stand out from the crowd, because many girls my age want to be very 'feminine' and are scared of the 'boy's cut'. And I might be plus-size but I am also super strong

If you could change parts of the way youlook, what would it be?I would like to go down a couple of sizes.

How often do you think women's magazine speakto you?I hardly read women's magazines and I certainly don't agree with their narrow definitions of 'beauty' and 'desirable' lifestyle.

Whathave your moments of low self-esteem taught you? I try not to stay in the 'low' phase fortoo long. A couple days is fine, but after that it can get really hard. I tell myself that I am smart, funny and talented and how I look on the outside or how people perceive me in the short term should not change that. Also talking or being with friends who refuse to notice my 'flaws' always helps.

Nepalisociety …  I try not to let myself be affected by those 'expectations', but it's very tough. I wish those categories did not exist and that we were more accepting of people who fall outside the box.

Name: Shenmi Rai Age:21 Occupation: Student

Are you happy with the way you look?Yes, of course. I am happy with the way I look and on the skin I live in.

What two things do you love about your body?For me, the two things I really love about my body are my toes, fingers and hands.

If you could change parts of the way you look, what would it be?If I could change parts of the way I look, it would be my eyes.

What do you love about yourself?The best way to love is to love ourselves. I also love to make others happy, at times of sadness, pain and sorrow.

How often do you think women's magazines really speak to you?I think women's magazines really speak to me a lot. It taught me about the power of feminism, strength, capability and the will of being a woman.

What have your moments of low self-esteem taught you?My moments of low self-esteem have taught me to be happy with what we are/have because we were born this way.

Nepali society expects women to look a certain way; thin, straight hair, light-skinned etc. What do you have to say about it? To be beautiful, women do not have to be thin, light-skinned with straight hair. Each and every woman is beautiful in their own way. Some Nepalese women are naturally beautiful.

Name: Parina Subba Limbu Age: 32 Occupation: Programme Director, Dristi Nepal

Are you happy with the way you look?Of cours

What two things do you love about your body?My heart and my eyes

If you could change parts of the way you look, what would it be?Nothing. I love myself and every part of my body.

What do you love about yourself?I love that I can appreciate everything around me.

How often do you think women's magazines really speak to you?Most of the time  especially Editor's note.

What have your moments of low self-esteem taught you?To see everything and be positive. To seek opportunities in every problems.

Nepali society expects women to look a certain way; thin, straight hair, light-skinned etc. What do you have to say about it? Bullshit ! Every woman is beautiful especially Nepali women.

9:44 AM by SOOCH · 0

Here’s a list of 10 interesting facts about condoms that you might not know

Here’s a list of 10 interesting facts about condoms that you might not know

FROM ISSUE # 192 (December 2011) | IN THIS ISSUE
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http://www.wavemag.com.np/issue/article3896.html

18th century condoms were fashioned from sheep, lamb and goat intestines and sometimes, fish skin.
On average, women buy more condoms than men accounting for 40% - 70% of the purchasing market.
Documentation suggests that legendary 19th century lover Casanova was a regular user of condoms, referring to them as 'Redingote Anglaise' (English riding coat).

On average, condoms hold about 4 quarts of liquid. That's about 16 cups or 1 gallon of liquid or 3.8 litres. That's larger than most milk bottles!

The Danish word for condom is Svangerskabsforebyggendemiddel. So much for a mouthful.
Durex condoms are undeniably one of the most popular brands of condoms all around the world. 

While breakage is often touted as the main reason for condoms failing, it is in fact down to user error and incorrect use of condoms. Breakages only occur in 2% of all condom failures

Condoms and Vaseline seem like they should go hand and hand but it is a big fat DON'T. Vaseline, or any oil-based lubricant, will disintegrate most condoms.

Female condoms are made of polyurethane or nitrile, which make them strong and durable. There is no need to store it in a special storage conditions as it is resistant to humidity and high temperatures.

Female condoms shouldn't be used together with male condoms because it could be damaged during sexual intercourse due to friction.

10 funny condom slogans1. If you're nude, tube your dude.
2. Don't be silly. Protect your willy.
3. Wrap your tool to catch the drool.
4. Cover your hose then curl her toes.
5. Cover your stump before you hump.
6. Sex is cleaner with a packaged wiener.
7. If you think it's funky, cover your monkey.
8. Don't make a mistake. Cover your snake.
9. You can't go wrong if you shield your dong.
10. If you're not going to sack it, go home and whack it!

9:42 AM by SOOCH · 0

O love! What crimes are committed in your name?

O love! What crimes are committed in your name?

http://www.wavemag.com.np/issue/article3935.html

by SLOK GYAWALI

FROM ISSUE # 194 (February 2012) | IN THIS ISSUE
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BIKRAM RAI

Romantic love is perhaps the greatest reward of human evolution. It is one of the finer survival mechanisms we have developed as a species. Scientific research into how our mind transforms when we are "in love" has helped luminate the chemical complexity behind it all. Love is made possible by a romantic coordination of the visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, and neurochemical processes. Contrary to the insufferable saying "Love is blind" love it seems has a wonderful eyesight; and is far from being deaf or crazy or mute or any other kind of handicap.

Whatever your presumed reason for falling in love maybe, it derives its motivation by the human instincts to procreate. The true tragedy of human love is that even though we have an insatiable desire to mate, we want to mate with only those partners we think will give us genetically strong offspring. 

Therefore begins the process of sniffing, tasting, and eyeing our partners out. You are not with your partner for no reason; there is a fascinating evolutionary story that's taken millions of years to perfect that has led you two to hook up.

Since, the early Homo sapiens love has been part of our societal interactions. We have relied on the same chemicals to produce the same emotion to fulfill some of the same tasks regardless of the time and space of our existence. Love over millenniums has not altered, however the ways in which we express it have.

Human have always relied on symbols. Symbols help us express the intangible. Look around, you are surrounded by symbols: symbols of God, of bravery, of good old times. We do the same with love. The way people symbolize love has differentiated along cultural and chronological lines but all ages and all races have done so. When Shah Jahan had the Taj Mahal built he was symbolizing love. Writing extravagant poetry for your partner is an expression of love.  Buying diamonds- that last forever- is also a symbol of love.

The symbols and the ways of expressing love are dynamic. In the past lovers had to be creative in conveying their feelings. They could not rely on mass produced goods to come to their aid. The select few who could write wrote poems, letters, and songs for the sake of amour. And the many that couldn't, used subtle ways of expressing it. Over the years the symbolisms altered- alas for the worse. In our economic age love became commodified. The symbols were hijacked. The urge to be creative stifled by mass production. The subtle art of expressing love tattered by the constant bombardment of images that told us we must do something or give something when in love.

The mundane nature of modern life finds relief in the magic of mass communication. Movies and advertisements that provide an escape also tell us how to feel and what to do with those feelings. People in love are forced to undergo what sociologist Arlie Hochschild termed "emotional labor": a form of emotional regulation wherein people are expected to display certain emotions in certain circumstances. The necessity to act a certain way when in love had gripped our thinking. But how do we act this love out?

We know we have to express love but we find ourselves caught between the unexciting expressions our economic age and the clichéd expressions of a past era. So most of us raise our hands in surrender to corporation and ask them to convey our most private yearnings through mass produced symbols. We give cards, and gifts and go out for drives and dates because that is what lover do.  And if you don't, well then there must be something wrong with you.

Isn't that sad? Does that not make you angry? A thousand years from now when people look back at our time and ask how we expressed love, they'll find that all of us gave teddy bears to each other and went to eat in a fancy restaurant on the February 14 every year. How boring is that!

I am no love guru to give advice on how to go about your intimate life but as a matter of common sense I can say this: Even though love is grand its best expressed with humility. You don't need to be a poet to tell your partner how much they are appreciated. Neither do you need Valentine's Day nor songs or chocolates or hearts or stuffed animals or cards or dates or movies or even words. If your chemicals are working then love can be expressed through the most basic of human actions on the most ordinary of days.

So don't let a chubby Roman God flying half naked with a bow and arrow dictate your reaction to this fundamental human emotion. If you don't get a gift this Valentine's, don't despair. Maybe your partner is trying express it in a more subtle ways. After all, humans have expressed love without commercializing it for millenniums and I am certain we are capable of doing the same this Valentines. 

9:38 AM by SOOCH · 0

जब पढाइमा मन लाग्दैन

जब पढाइमा मन लाग्दैन

श्यामकुमार सिंहhttp://www.ekantipur.com/saptahik/article/?id=3496

आजको समयमा वाह्य वातावरणमा यति धेरै ध्यान भंग गर्ने कुराहरू छन् जहाँ छात्र-छात्राले आफ्नो पढाइमा ठीकसँग आफूलाई केन्द्रित गर्न  पाइरहेका छैनन् । विशेषगरी अत्यधिक उत्सुकताका कारण किशोर-किशोरीहरू आफ्नो ध्यान केन्दि्रत गर्न पाउँदैनन् । अति उत्सुकताले  एकग्रता भंग गर्छ । 

यस्तो अवस्थामा कुनै पनि प्रकारको दबाबबाट छुटकारा पाउने प्रयास गर्नुपर्छ तथा जुन कुराले अध्ययनमा अवरोध सिर्जना गर्छ, त्यसबाट टाढै  रहनुपर्छ । आफ्नो मस्तिष्कलाई बढीभन्दा बढी आराम दिनुपर्छ । किशोर-किशोरीहरूले पढाइमा आफ्नो ध्यान केन्दि्रत गर्न केही विशेष कुराको  हेक्का राख्नुपर्छ । 

एउटा उद्देश्य 

किशोर-किशोरीहरूले आफ्नो उद्देश्यलाई कसरी योजनाबद्ध तरिकाले पूरा गर्न सकिन्छ भन्नेतिर लाग्नुपर्छ । आफूले निश्चित गरेको समयमा  पर्याप्त मेहनत गर्नुपर्छ । कहिल्यै पनि आफ्नो लक्ष्य त्यस्तो बनाउनु हुँदैन जुन पूरा हुन नसकोस जुन कुरा पढ्न छुटयाइएको थियो, त्यसको  कति अंश पूरा भयो र कति बाँकी रह्यो प्रत्येक दिन मूल्यांकन गर्नुपर्छ । 

आफ्नो समयतालिका आफू एउटै विषयमा नअकिडयोस् तथा अन्य विषयलाई पनि पूरा समय दिनसकियोस भन्ने हिसावले बनाउनुपर्छ । कुनै  पनि विषयलाई उचित समय दिएर मात्र त्यसलाई राम्रोसँग बुझ्न सकिन्छ । विषयहरू परिवर्तन गरेर पढ्दा बोर भइदैन र ध्यानपनि यताउति  जाँदैन । 

आफ्नो प्रिय विषय रोजौं 

जुन विषय मनपर्छ, अध्ययनको प्रारम्भ त्यही विषयबाट गर्नुपर्छ । कम्तीमा ३० देखि ४५ मिनेटसम्म आफ्नो प्रिय विषय पढ्नुपर्छ, त्यसपछि  कठिन विषय पढ्न आफैं रुचि जागृत भएर आउँछ । 

विश्राम गरौं 

लगातार पढ्दा मानिस थकित हुन्छ । त्यस्तो थकानबाट  मुक्ति पाउन सानो ब्रेक लिनुपर्छ । ब्रेक कुन प्रकारको र कति समयको हुनुपर्छ भन्ने  कुरा स्वयंमा निर्भर गर्छ । एक घन्टा पढिसकेपछि १० मिनेटको विश्राम पर्याप्त हुन्छ । उक्त समयमा टेलिभिजन हेर्न सकिन्छ, घरबाहिर  कौसीमा डुल्न सकिन्छ । आफूले मन पराएको गीत सुन्न सकिन्छ, वा कुनै गेम खेलेर स्वयंलाई तरोताजा गर्न सकिन्छ । 

शान्त स्थान रोजौं 

टेलिभिजन भएको कोठामा वा गेस्टरुममा पढ्नु हुँदैन । शान्त स्थानमा बसेर अध्ययन गर्नुपर्छ । अतिथिको आगमनले कुनै प्रकारको बाधा  उत्पन्न नहोस भन्ने कुरामा छात्र स्वयं एवं परिवारजनले पनि ध्यान पुर्‍याउनुपर्छ । 

व्यायाम 

अध्ययनका क्रममा बीच-बीचमा व्यायाम पनि गर्नुपर्छ, जसले शरीर चुस्त राख्छ । स्वस्थ मस्तिष्कका लागि शरीर स्वस्थ हुनुपर्छ । बिहानको  खुल्ला हावामा हिँड्दा तथा व्यायाम गर्दा शरीर चुस्तस्फुर्त रहन्छ ।

9:32 AM by SOOCH · 0

परीक्षाफल, विद्यार्थी र अभिभावक

परीक्षाफल, विद्यार्थी र अभिभावक

श्यामकुमार सिंहhttp://www.ekantipur.com/saptahik/article/?id=1771

परीक्षाको चिन्ता, राम्रो प्रदर्शनको दबाब एवं अभिभावकको उच्च अपेक्षा, तीनवटै कुराले विद्यार्थीको जीवन तनावपूर्ण हुन्छ । फलस्वरूप आजभोलि परीक्षासम्बन्धी तनावका कारण पीडित विद्यार्थीको सङ्ख्यामा निरन्तर वृद्धि भैरहेको छ । ८० प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी विद्यार्थी परीक्षाअगावै एक्जाइटीको सिकार हुन्छन् भने कतिपय मनोचिकित्सकको सल्लाह लिन पुग्छन् । यो तथ्यले एउटै कुरालाई सङ्केत गर्छ— यस दिशामा चाँडै कुनै ठोस कदम चाल्नुपर्ने आवश्यकता छ ।

कारण

परीक्षाफल बिगि्रएको खण्डमा विद्यार्थीमा स्वयंलाई असर पुर्‍याउने प्रवृत्ति किन जन्मन्छ ? परीक्षाफल बिगि्रएको खण्डमा विद्यार्थीको मनमा सबैभन्दा पहिले यही विचार आउँछ- बाँकी साथी त सफल भैहाले, म मात्र असफल भएँ । यस्तो स्थितिमा उसमा एक्लोपनको भावना उत्पन्न हुन्छ । उसलाई आफ्नो आत्मसम्मानमा कमी आए जस्तो लाग्छ । यस्तो स्थितिमा परिवारले पनि उसैलाई बलिको बोको बनाई उसको आलोचना गरिरह्यो भने स्थिति थप बिग्रन सक्छ । 

समाधान

यसप्रकारको समस्याबाट बच्न परीक्षाको परिणाम निस्कने बेलामा विद्यार्थीलाई काउन्सिलर उपलब्ध गराउनुपर्छ । जसको परीक्षाको परिणाम राम्रो छैन उसलाई काउन्सिलरले मानसिक रूपमा सान्त्वना दिन सक्छन् र भविष्यप्रति प्रेरित गरेर निराशाबाट बच्न सहयोग गर्छन् । यो कार्य सामूहिक वा आवश्यकताअनुसार व्यक्तिगत रूपमा पनि गर्न सकिन्छ । परीक्षाफल बिगि्रएको खण्डमा छात्रछात्राले आफ्नो आत्मसम्मानमा कमी आएको महसुस गर्छन् । यस्तो अवस्थामा उनीहरूको आत्मसम्मानलाई पुनः बहाली गर्नुपर्ने आवश्यकता हुन्छ । यस प्रकारको अवस्थाबाट जोगिन काउन्सिलरले अभिभावकहरूलाई पनि प्रशिक्षित गर्न सक्छन् ।

स्कुलको भूमिका

यस्तो परिस्थितिमा स्कुल-कलेजको भूमिका पनि महत्त्वपूर्ण हुन्छ । स्कुल-कलेजले विद्यार्थीलाई भावनात्मक रूपमा सहयोग गर्न सक्छन् । विद्यालयमा छात्रछात्राको आलोचना गर्नुहुँदैन । यसबाहेक एक छात्रलाई अर्को छात्रसँग तुलना गर्नुहुँदैन । आवश्यकता महसुस भए स्कुल-कलेजद्वारा अतिरिक्त सहयोग वा गाइडेन्स दिन सकिन्छ । विद्यालयमा नियमित रूपमा करियर काउन्सिलिङको व्यवस्था गर्नुपर्छ ।

ध्यान दिनुपर्ने कुरा 

अभिभावकले छात्रछात्रामा हुने निम्नलिखित परिवर्तनमाथि ध्यान दिनु आवश्यक छः

 

 पटकपटक रुन्छ वा रुन मन लाग्छ ।

एक्लै बस्न रुचाउँछ ।

साथीभाइसँग बोलचाल गरिरहेको छैन ।

राम्रो निद्रा लागिरहेको छैन ।

भोक लागेको छैन ।

चिडचिडाहट बढेर गएको छ ।

कुनै पनि कुरामा रुचि लिइरहेको छैन ।

उपरोक्त लक्षणहरू कुनै छात्रछात्रामा देखा परे अभिभावकको भूमिका महत्त्वपूर्ण हुन्छ । यस प्रकारको स्थितिमा अभिभावकले सतर्कता अपनाउनु बुद्धिमानी हुन्छ ।

9:30 AM by SOOCH · 0

एक्जाम फोबियाबाट कसरी बच्ने ?

एक्जाम फोबियाबाट कसरी बच्ने ?

श्यामकुमार सिंहhttp://www.ekantipur.com/saptahik/article/?id=6923

परीक्षा, टेस्ट, एक्जाम यी शब्दले धेरै लामो समयदेखि छात्रछात्रालाई डराउँदै, धम्क्याउँदै, आतङ्कित तुल्याउँदै आएको छ। लगातार कठिन हुँदै गएको  प्रतिस्पर्धा, आमाबुबाको सपना, आफ्नो महत्त्वाकांक्षा र समाजको मानक सबैले जहाँ एकातिर प्रगतिको बाटो खोल्छ त्यही कोमल किशोर मनमा एउटा  ठूलो तनाव पनि छोड्छ। मनोवैज्ञानिक भाषामा एग्जाम फोबिया वा परीक्षामा ज्वरो एउटा यस्तो समस्या हो जसले कोमल हृदय भएका किशोरहरूको  तन र मन दुवैलाई प्रभावित तुल्याउँछ।

भविष्य निर्माणप्रति सजग विद्यार्थीहरू वर्षभरि नै पढाइलेखाइमा लाग्छन्, तर परीक्षाको समय त्यो समय हो जब परीक्षाको तनाव र दबाबका कारण  विद्यार्थीहरू डराएको अनुभव गर्छन्। उनीहरूलाई भोक लाग्दैन। अनिद्रा, टाउको दुखाइ, आँखा थाक्ने जस्ता समस्याहरू देखा पर्न थाल्छन्। 

पर्याप्त मेहनतका बाबजुद यदि परीक्षामा राम्रो अंक आएन भने मन त खिन्न हुन्छ नै साथै विद्यार्थीहरू डिप्रेसनको सिकार पनि हुन पुग्छन्। जसले  उनीहरूमा व्यक्तित्वसम्बन्धी दोष पनि देखा पर्न थाल्छ। कम अंक अथवा आशाअनुसार अंक वा ग्रेड प्राप्त नहुँदा धेरैजसो विद्यार्थीमा निराशा देखा पर्छ।  हाम्रो सामाजिक संरचना, आमाबुबाको सामाजिक हैसियत, एकेडेमिक अंक तथा ग्रेडको आधारमा जागिर पाउने प्रावधान तथा बुद्धिमान बन्ने प्रवृत्तिले  गर्दा परीक्षा एउटा मूल्यांकन नबनेर एउटा डर बनिसकेको छ। 

सबैभन्दा पहिले त परीक्षा नामको भयमाथि नियन्त्रण आवश्यक छ किनभने डरले कुनै पनि काम ठीकसँग हुन पाउँदैन। खानपिन छोड्नाले विद्यार्थीको  अध्ययन क्षमतामा प्रतिकूल असर पर्छ। अतः खानपिन छोड्नुको सट्टा सन्तुलित तथा पौष्टिक आहार खानुपर्छ। यस अवधिमा अमला र चनालाई खानामा  अवश्य सामेल गर्नुपर्छ र दूध पनि पिउनुपर्छ। हुनसक्छ भने जुस पनि पिइरहनुपर्छ। चटपटे तथा फास्टफुडबाट बच्न सकियो भने पेटले पनि अध्ययनमा  साथ दिन्छ।

छुट्टै पढ्ने कोठा र टाइमटेबल आवश्यक छ। समयबद्ध र नियमित अध्ययनले आत्मविश्वास बढ्छ र आत्मविश्वास नै सफलताको साँचो हो। आत्मविश्वास  प्राप्त हुन्छ— पाठ्यक्रमको गहन र सम्पूर्ण अध्ययनले। यथासंभव पूरा पाठ्यक्रम पढ्नुपर्छ र राम्रो अंक ल्याउन बजारमा पाइने नोटस, गेसपेपर तथा  गाइडहरूमा आश्रति रहनुहुँदैन किनभने यसको सहाराले सामान्य अंक मात्र पाउन सकिन्छ। राम्रो अंक प्राप्त गर्नु छ भने पाठ्यक्रमको कुनै पनि भाग  छोड्नुहुँदैन।

परीक्षाको तयारी रटेर होइन लेखेर वा तर्कपूर्ण ढंगले गर्नुपर्छ। प्रत्येक प्रश्नपत्रको स्वरुप, अंकको विभाजन, प्रश्नको संख्या, प्रत्येक प्रश्नको शब्दसीमा  आदिको पनि पूरा ज्ञान आवश्यक छ। यसले पनि राम्रो परिणाम ल्याउन मद्दत गर्छ।

यी जम्मै कुरा त परीक्षा पूर्वका तयारी हुन्। अब परीक्षा भवनमा प्रश्नपत्र कसरी हल गर्ने ? जान्नु सबैभन्दा महत्त्वपूर्ण छ। उत्तर लेख्नुभन्दा पहिले  प्रश्नलाई राम्रोसँग बुझ्नुपर्छ। उत्तर एकदम सटिक र निर्धारित शब्दसीमाभित्र लेख्नुपर्छ। कुनै पनि प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्दा त्यसलाई अनावश्यक विस्तार गर्ने  प्रयास गर्नुहुँदैन भने अति संक्षिप्त उत्तर पनि लेख्नुहुँदैन। उत्तर सन्तुलित र सोधिएको प्रश्नकै आधारमा लेख्नुपर्छ। यदि प्रश्नपत्रलाई थप उत्तरपुस्तिकामा  हल गर्नु छ भने उत्तर क्रम मिलाएर नै लेख्नुपर्छ। प्रत्येक उत्तरको अगाडि सम्बन्धित प्रश्नको क्रम सङ्ख्या अंकित गर्नुपर्छ तथा एउटा खण्डको प्रश्नको  उत्तर एउटै ठाउँमा लेख्नुपर्छ। प्रत्येक प्रश्नको हलपश्चात् एक वा दुई लाइन वा स्पेस छोडेर मात्र अर्को प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्न थाल्नुपर्छ। जहाँसम्म सम्भव  छ उत्तर लेख्नुभन्दा पहिले एकचोटि सोच्नुपर्छ र उत्तर केरमेट गर्नबाट जोगिनुपर्छ। आफ्नो उत्तरमा पूर्ण विश्वास गर्नुपर्छ। याद राखौँ आत्मविश्वास नै  सफलताको साँचो हो। त्यसबाहेक स्पष्ट र सुन्दर लेखाइ पनि सफलताको अर्को कडी हो।

9:28 AM by SOOCH · 0

MBBS/BDS Entrance Exam Curriculum by MOE (Nepal)

PHYSICS

Group (A) Mechanics

• General concept of physical quantities, Vector algebra
• Laws of Motion, Application of Newton’s laws, Work, Energy and Power, Projectile motion
• Circular Motion, Motion round a banked track and in vertical circle
• Newton’s law of gravitation, Variation of ‘g’ with altitude and depth, Satellites, Gravitational potential energy, Escape velocity, Black holes
• Elasticity, Hooke’s law, Young modulus, Bulk modulus, Elastic potential energy
• Oscillatory motion, Simple harmonic motions, Damped oscillation, Forced oscillation and resonance

Group (B) Heat and Thermodynamics

• Concept of heat and temperature, Expansion of solid and liquid, Specific heat capacity, specific heat capacity of solid, Specific latent heat of fusion and its  measurements
• Thermal conductivity and its determination by Searle’s method, Black body radiation, Stefan-Boltzmann law
• Thermodynamic systems, First law of thermodynamics, Heat capacities of ideal gas at constant pressure and constant volume and relation between them, Isothermal and adiabatic processes for an ideal gas, Second law of thermodynamics

Group (C) Waves and Optics

• Reflection & Refraction of light, Refractive index, Lateral shift, Minimum deviation through prism, Relation between angle of prism, minimum deviation and refractive index, Lenses, Combination of thin lenses in contact
• Dispersion, Dispersive power, Achromatic lenses, Scattering of light, blue color of the sky
• Optical instruments, Angular magnification, Compound microscope, Astronomical Telescope
• Longitudinal and transverse waves, Progressive and stationary waves, Velocity of sound in medium, Laplace’s correction, Stationary waves in closed and open pipes, Harmonics and overtones in closed and open organ pipes, Resonance tube experiment, Laws of transverse vibration of a stretched string
• Characteristics of sound, Intensity, loudness, quality and pitch, Beats, Doppler’s effect, Infrasonic and ultrasonic waves
• Physical optics, Wave theory of light, Interference, Diffraction and Polarization, Coherent sources, Young’s double slit experiment, Diffraction grating, Brewster’s law

Group (D) Electricity and Magnetism

• Coulomb’s law – Force due to point charges, Gauss law and its applications: Field of a charged sphere, Line charge; Potential due to a point charge, Electron volt, Capacitance of a  capacitor, Parallel plate capacitor, Combination of capacitors
• Electric Currents, Drift velocity and its relation with current, Ohmic and Non-Ohmic resistance, Resistances in series and parallel, Electromotive force of a source, Internal resistance, Work and power in electrical circuits, Kirchhoff’s laws, Wheatstone Bridge circuit, Meter Bridge, Potentiometer
• Magnetic field lines and magnetic flux, Force on moving charge, Force on conductor, Force and torque on rectangular coil, Ampere’s law and its application to i) a long straight conductor ii) a straight solenoid, Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law
• AC through resistor, capacitor and inductor, Series circuits containing combination of resistor, capacitor and inductor, Series resonance, Choke coil

Group (E) Modern Physics

• Electrons: Millikan’s oil drop experiment, Cathode rays and their properties; Motion of electron beam in electric and magnetic fields, Thomson’s experiment to determine specific charge of electrons
• Quantum nature of radiation, Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Stopping potential
• Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors, P-N Junction diode, Forward and reverse bias, Rectification, Zener diode
• Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom, Spectral series, Excitation and ionization potentials, Energy level, de Broglie Theory, Duality, Uncertainly principle
• Lasers: Properties and uses, X-rays: Production, properties and uses
• Basic concepts of nucleus, Mass Defect and amu, Einstein’s mass-energy relation, Binding energy, Fission and fusion, Alpha-particles, Beta-particles, Gamma rays, Laws of radioactive disintegration, Half-life and decay constant, Health hazards and safety precautions

CHEMISTRY

Group (A) GENERAL AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Part (1) Language of Chemistry and Chemical Arithmetic

I.                   Language of Chemistry (Review)

• Chemical equations, their significances and limitations.
• Balancing chemical equations by: Hit and trail method and Partial equation method
• Types of chemical reaction

1. Chemical Arithmetic

• Dalton’s atomic theory and Laws of Stoichemistry: Postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory, Law of conservation of mass, Law of constant proportions, Law of multiple proportion, Law of reciprocal proportion, Law of gaseous volumes, Chemical calculations based on stoichiometry

1. Atomic Mass and Molecular Mass:

• Definition of atomic mass and molecular mass
• Mole concept
• Mole in term of mass, volume number and ions
• Calculation based on mole concept

1. Empirical, Molecular Formula and Limiting Reactants:

• Percentage compositions
• Derivation of empirical and molecular formula from percentage composition
• Chemical calculation based on following chemical equation
• Limiting reactants
• Mass-mass relationship
• Volume- volume relationship
• Mass volume relationship
• (Solving related numerical problems)

1. Avogadro’s Hypothesis and its applications:

• Development of Avogadro’s hypothesis
• Definition of Avogadro’s hypothesis
• Application of Avogadro’s hypothesis
• Deduction of atomicity of elementary gas
• Deduction of relationship between molecular mass and vapour density
• Deduction of molar volume of gases
• Deduction of molecular formula from its volumetric composition
• (Solving related numerical problems)

1. Equivalent Masses:

• Concept of equivalent mass
• Equivalent weight of elements and compounds (Salt, acid, base,  oxidizing agents, reducing agents)
• Gram equivalent weight (GEW)
• Relation between equivalent weight, valency and atomic weight
• Determination of equivalent weight of metal by
• Hydrogen displacement method
• Oxide formation method
• (Solving related numerical problems)

Part (2) States of Matter

I.    Gaseous State:

• Boyle’s law
• Charles law and Kelvin scale of temperature
• Application of Charles law and Boyle’s law
• Combined gas law, ideal gas equation and universal gas constant
• Dalton’s law of partial pressure
• Mathematical derivation of Dalton’s law and their applications
• Graham’s law of diffusion and its applications
• Kinetic model of gas and its postulates
• Ideal and real gases
• Deviation of gas from ideal behavior
• (Solving related numerical problems)

II.  Liquid State:

• Physical properties of liquid
• Evaporation and condensation
• Vapour pressure of liquid and boiling
• Surface tension
• Viscosity
• Solution and solubility:
• Equilibrium in saturated solution
• Solubility and solubility curve and its applications.
• (Solving related numerical problems)

III. Solid State:

• Crystalline and amorphous solids
• Water of crystallization
• Efflorescence
• Deliquesces
• Hygroscopic
• Seven types of crystal system
• Simple cubic, face centered and body centered

Part (3) Atomic structure and Electronic theory of valency

• Discovery of fundamental particles of atom (electron, proton and neutron)
• Concept of atomic number, mass number, fractional atomic mass, isotopes, isobars
• Rutherford’s α ray scattering experiment and nuclear model of atom; limitation
• Bohr’s model of atom and explanation of hydrogen spectra
• Limitation of Bohr’s model of atom
• Elementary idea of quantum mechanical model
• Dual nature of electron (de-Broglie equation)
• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
• Probability concept
• Shape of atomic orbital (s and p orbitals only)
• Quantum numbers
• Pauli’s exclustion  principle
• Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
• Aufbau principle and Bohr Bury rule
• Electronic configuration of the atoms and ions (Z= 1 to 30)
• Basic assumption of electronic theory of valency
• Octet rule
• Ionic bonds, ionic compounds and characteristics of ionic compounds. Lewis symbol to represent the formation of ionic compounds
• Covalent bonds, covalent compounds and characteristics of covalent compounds-Lewis structure of some typical covalent compounds
• Co-ordinate covalent bonds. Lewis structures of some typical co-ordinate covalent compounds
• Exception of the octet rule
• Partial ionic characters of covalent compounds. Non-polar and polar covalent molecules

Part (4) Periodic Classification of Elements

• Introduction
• Mendeleev’s periodic law and periodic table
• Anamolies of Mendeleev’s periodic table
• Modern periodic law, and modern periodic table
• Advantage of  modern periodic table
• Division of physical properties: valency, atomic radii, ionic radii ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity (general trends only)

Part (5) Oxidation and Reduction

• Classical concept of oxidation and reduction
• Electronic interpretation of oxidation and reduction
• Oxidation number and rules for the assignment of oxidation number
• Differentiate between oxidation number and valency
• Oxidising and reducing agent
• Redox reaction
• Balance redox reactions by:

Oxidation number method

Ion-eletron method

Group (B) INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Part (1) Non-metals

• Water
• Structure
• Solvent property of water
• Heavy water and uses
• Uses
• Nitrogen and Its compounds
• Ammonia
• Manufacture by Haber’s synthesis method
• Physical properties, chemical properties and uses
• Carbon
• Allotropes of carbon including fullerenes
• Sulphur
• Hydrogen Sulphide: (Laboratory methods and Kipp’s apparatus), properties and uses of
• Sulphurdioxide: Laboratory preparation, preparation and uses
• Sulphuric acid: Manufacture by contact process, properties and uses
• Environmental Pollution:
• Air pollution, photochemical smog
• Acid rain, water pollution
• Green house effect
• Characteristics of metals, non-metals and metalloids
• Minerals and ores
• Important minerals deposit in Nepal
• Different process involved in metallurgical process
• Concentration
• Calcinations and roasting
• Smelting
• Carbon reduction process
• Thermite process
• Electrochemical reduction
• Refining of metals: poling, electro-refinement etc.

Part (2) Metal and Metallurgical Principles

Group (C) ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Part (1) Introduction ot Organic Chemistry

I.    Fundamental Principles:

• Definition of organic chemistry and organic compounds
• Origin of organic compounds (vital force theory)
• Reasons for the separate study of organic compounds
• Tetra covalency and catenation property of carbon
• Classification of organic compounds
• Functional groups and homologous series
• Meanings of empirical formula, molecular formula, structural formula and contracted formula
• Qualitative analysis of organic compounds. (detection of N, S and halogens by Lassaegne’s test)

II.  Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

• Common names
• IUPAC system and IUPAC rules of naming hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers,  aldehydes,  carboxylic acid, amines, ester, acid derivative halogen derivatives, nitriles etc.)

III. Structure Isomerism in Organic Compounds

• Definition of structure isomerism
• Types of structure isomerism: chain isomerism, position, isomerism, functional isomerism and metamerism

IV. Preliminary Idea of Reaction Mechanism

• Concept of hemolytic and heterolytic fission
• Electrophile, nucleophiles and free-radicals
• Inductive effect, +I and –I effect
• Hybridization and concept of sigma and pi bond
• Valence shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory
• Prediction of molecular geometry (Shape of molecules) on the basis of VSEPR and hybridization.(BeF₂­, BF₃, NH₃, H₂O, CH₄, H₂O, C₂H₂ C₂H₄ H₂S)

Part (2) Chemical Bonding and Shape of Molecules

Part (3) Volumetric Analysis

1. Different ways of expressing the concentration of solutions.

• Molarity
• Normality
• Molality
• Gram/ Litre
• Percentage

1. Titration:

• Acid-base titration
• Redox titration

1. Primary standard substances, primary standard solution, secondary standard solution, end point, equivalence point, neutral point, indicators.
2. Derivation of normality equation
3. Relation between normality and molarity
4. Selection of indicators in acid-base titration and PH curve
5. Solving related numerical problems

Part (4) Ionic Equilibrium

• Introduction
• Ionization of weak electrolyte (Ostwald’s dilution law)
• Degree of ionization and ionization constant
• Strength of acid and base in term of  Ka, Kb and pKa, pKb values
• Acid-base concept
• Arrhenius concept of acids and bases
• Bronsted lowrry concept concept of acids and bases
• Lewis concept of acids and bases.
• Ionization of water, pH and pH scale.
• Hydrolysis of salts. (qualitative concept)
• Solubility product principle and its application
• Common ion effects and its application
• Application of solubility product principle in qualitative analysis
• Buffer Solution
• (Solving numerical problems related with solubility, solubility product, pH and pOH)

Part (5) Alcohols and Phenols

I.    Alcohols

1.                     i.            Introduction, classification, nomenclature and isomerism
2.                   ii.            Distinction of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol by Victor Mayer’s Method
3.                 iii.            Preparation of monohydric alcohols form

• Haloalkane
• Grignard’s reagents using aldehydes
• Primary amines
• Ester

iv.      Industrial preparation ethanol form:

• Oxoprocess
• Fermentation of sugar
• Hydroboration of ethane

1. Physical properties monohydric alcohols

vi.      Chemical properties of monohydric alcohols

• Reaction with HX. PX3, PCl5SOCl2
  • Action with reactive metals like Na, K, Li
  • Esterification  process
  • Dehydration of alcohols
  • Oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol with oxidizing agents.
  • Reduction of alcohols (Catalytic dehydrogenation)
  • Laboratory test of ethanol
  • Absolute alcohol, methylated spirit, rectified spirit; alcoholic beverage.
  • Preparation and uses of ethan- 1.2. diol (glycol)
  • Peparation and uses of Propan- 1, 2, 3 triol (glycerol)

II. Phenols

1. Introduction to phenol

ii.   Preparation of phenol from

• Chlorobenzene
• Diazonium salt and
• Benzene sulphonic acid
• Physical properties of phenol
• Chemical properties
  • Acidic nature of phenol
  • Action with PCl5, PX5, NH3, Zn, Na benzene diazonium chloride and phthalic anhydride
  • Acylation reaction, Kolbe’s reaction, Reimer Tiemann’s reaction
  • Electrophilic substitution: halogenations, nitration, sulphonation bromination and Friedal Craft’s alkylation
  • Laboratory test of phenol
  • Uses of phenol

Part (6) Aldehydes and Ketones

I.    Aliphatic Aldehydes and Ketones

1. Introduction, structure of carbonyl group, nomenclature and isomerism in carbonyl compound

ii.   Preparation of aldehydes and ketones from

• Dehydrogenation and oxidation of alcohol
• Ozonolysis of alkenes
• Acid chloride
• Gem dihaloalkane
• Catalytic distillation of fatty acid
• Distillation of salt of fatty acid
• Catalytic hydration of alkynes

iii.  Physical properties

iv.  Chemical properties

• Addition reaction: addition of H2, HCN, NaHSO3 and Grignard’s reagents
• Action with ammonia derivatives; NH2OH, NH2- NH2, phenyl hydrazine, semicarbazides and 2,4-DNP
• Reduction properties of aldehydes
• Oxidation  with Tollen’s reagent, Fehling’s solution
• Aldol of condensation reaction; clemennson’s reduction Wolf-Kischner reduction, Action with PCl5, action with ammonia, action with phenol, formalin and its uses.

II.Aromatic Aldehydes and Ketones

1. Preparation of benzaldehyde from toluene

ii.   Properties of benzaldehyde

iii.  Important reaction benzaldehyde different from aliphatic aldehydes:

• Perkin condensation
• Benzoin condensation
• Electrophilic substitution reaction
• Canninzaro’s reaction
  • Preparation of acetophenone by Friedal Craft’s  acylation

Part (7) Molecules of Life

• Carbohydrates: definition, classification of carbohydrates, various examples of carbohydrate of different class. Structure and glucose and fructose, function of carbohydrates, sugar and non-sugar.
• Protein: definition, amino acid, essential and non-essential aminoacids, peptide linkage, hydrolysis of aminoacids, denaturation of protein, zwitter ions, functions of aminoacids.
• Nucleic acid: definition, basic components of nucleic acid; double helix, difference between RNA and DNA; biological function of nucleic acid
• Lipid: definition, fatty acids, fat as ester of fatty acid and difference between fats and oils, function of lipid
• Enzymes and their functions.

Part (8) Chemistry in Service to Mankind

• Polymer: definition, natural and synthetic polymers, homopolymers and    co-polymer preparation of some polymers; PVC polyethene polystyreno Teflon, Nylon-66, Bakelite and their uses
• Dyes and drugs : definition, natural and synthetic dyes, names and structure of some common drug, drug addiction
• Fertilizer: definition, chemical and organic fertilizers, nitrogen fertilizer, phosphatic fertilizer; fertilizer as pollution
• Pesticides: insecticides, herbicides, weedicides and fungicides (examples and their uses).

BIOLOGY

Group (A) BOTANY

Part (1) Introduction to biology

• Scope of biology, field of bilogy, life processes
• Biomolecules (macromolecules & micromolecules)
• Taxonomy
  • Two kingdom and five kingdom system of classification
  • Binomial/trinomial nomenclature
• Structure, types and economic importance of virus, bacteria and lichens

Part (2) Biodiversity

• Structure and life cycle of Spirogyra, Blue green algae, Marchantia, Dryopteris, Cycas and Pinus
• Floral diversity of Nepal
• Forest conservation
• Types of forest of Nepal & their management

Part (3) Morphology

• Distributation, habitat, habit, root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit and seeds of families – Brassicaceae, Solanaceae, Papilionoidae, Asteraceae and Poaceae
• Taxonomy and economic importance of families given above

Part (4) Cytogenetics

• Cytology
  • Introduction, structure and functions of prokaryotic and eukarotic cells
  • Cell division – amitosis, mitosis and meiosis
• Genetics
  • Introduction, Mendelism, Genetic material ( DNA & RNA), Mutation

Part (5) Anatomy and physiology

• Anatomy
  • Types of tissues (meristematic, permanent and special types of tissues)
  • Internal structure of dicot and monocot leaf, stem and root
• Physiology
  • Water relation – osmois, diffusion, anscent of sap and transpiration
  • Photosynthesis – mechanism and factors
  • Respiration – anaerobic and aerobic
  • Hormones – physilolgical effects of auxins, gibberllin, cytokinin and abscisic acid

Part (6) Ecology

• Introduction, ecosystem (pond & grassland)
• Biogeochemical cycle – nitrogen and carbon
• Ecological imbalance and its consequences – green house effects, acid rain , depletion of ozone layer

Part (7) Developmental biology

• Reproduction – vegetative propogation, sporogenesis, gametogenisis
• Pollination, fertilization

Part (8) Application of biology

• Introduction to biotechnology, tissue culture, concept of breeding technique, disease resistant plants, biofertilizer, perticides
• Genetic engineering and its application
• Fermentation technology – alcoholic, antibiotics, organic acids

Group (B) ZOOLOGY

Part (1) Biodiversity

• Kingdom – Protista – general characters and classification of phylum – Protozoa upto classes with eamples
• Paramecium caudatum – distributation, habitat, habit, structure and reproduction
• Kingdom – Animalia – general characters and classification of phyla – Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nemathelminthes Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata and Chordata upto clases with examples.
• Faunal diversity of Nepal

Part (2) Anatomy and type study

• Animal tissues – epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous, their structure, types, location and function
• Earthworm and forg – distrubutation, habitat, habit, external feature, digestive system, respiratory system, excretory system, circulatory system, nervous system, reproductive system and economic importance.

Part (3) Human/rabbit physiology

• Digestive system – alimentary canal, associated glands and physiology of digestion
• Respiratory system – lungs, mechanism of breathing, physiology of respiration
• Escretory system – kidney, urine formation, osmoregulation and homoeostaisis
• Circulatory system – heart, working of heart, blood groups, blood prssure, arterial and venous system
• Reproductive system – male and female reproductive orgnas, associated glands, memtrual cycle.
• Nervous system – CNS (Brain and spinal cord), PNS and ANS
• Endocrine system – pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas

Part (4) Developmental biology

• Gametogenesis – spermatogeneris, oogeneris
• Fertilization, cleavage
• Morulation, blastucation, gastrulation and neurulation
• Coelom formation
• Fate of three primary germinal layers

Part (5) Origin and evolution

• Evolution – inorganic, organic
• Inorganic evolution – originof life, Oparin – Haldane’s theory, Miller – Urey experiment
• Organic evolution – evidences of organic evolution
• Lamarchism, Darwinism, Neo-Darwinism
• Human evolution

Part (6) Environmental relations

• Environmental pollution – air and water, sources, effects and control measures
• Migratory behavior of fishes and birds
• Adaptation in amimals – aquatic terrestrial, aerial
• Conservaton of wild life, wild life reserves, national parks, natural resources
• Protection of the earth – human responsibility
• Human population growth – consequences of over population, control measures

Part (7) Diseases

• Smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse, symptoms impact on health and society, rehabilitation, control
• Malaria, ascariaris, typhoid, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, mode of trammission, symptoms, control
• Cancer – types, symptoms, control

Part (8) Medical technology and economic zoology

• Test tube baby
• Amniocentesis
• Tissue and organ transplantation – skin, cornea, kidney, blood transfussion
• Animal breeding
• Fish farming, poultry farming
• Antibiotics and vaccines

Marking scheme

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